Glossary

Average household wealth has more than doubled in Argentina since 1995 but wealth inequality has remained at very high levels, with a top 10% wealth share oscillating between 60 and 70%. In 2021, the top 10% owns €PPP180,300 (ARS 11,903,540) on average, while the bottom 50% own €PPP3,500 or ARS234,090 (less than 6% of the total) in 2021. Argentinian wealth inequality is slightly lower than in the rest of Latin America but remains very high from an international standpoint.

Australia is a high-income country. The average per adult national income is equal to €PPP40,000 (AUD83,850).* This is comparable with other developed countries such as France (€PPP36,300) and Canada (€PPP38,000). While the bottom 50% earns €PPP13,000 (AUD27,110), the top 10% earns on average 10 times more (€PPP134,000 or AUD281,720).

Income inequality in Australia has been rising steadily since the early 1980s. Forty years ago, the top 10% income share was below 25%, it reached 30% at the turn of the century, and nears 34% in 2021. This trend stands in contrast with the 1900- 1970 period, when top incomes experienced a severe drop, making 1970s Australia one of the most equal countries on the planet. The 2010s has been a lost decade, in particular for the bottom 50%, whose incomes are slightly under their level 10 years ago.

Wealth inequalities in Australia have remained stable at a medium level since the mid-1990s. The share of the bottom 50% of total national wealth is around 6%, while the middle 40% and top 10% own around 38% and 56% respectively of all personal wealth.

In Australia, the female labor income share is equal to 37%. This level is comparable with those in Western Europe (38%) and North America (38%), lower than in Eastern Europe (41%) and higher than in Asia (21%, excluding China) and sub-Saharan Africa (28%). Women’s labor share is increasing slowly and has grown by four percentage points since 1990.

Average carbon emissions in Australia are close to 20 tCO2e/capita, one of the highest levels in the world and comparable with those in the US (21 tCO2e/capita). The bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% of the population respectively emit 10, 22 and 60 tonnes of carbon every year. Since 1990, carbon emissions have been slowly decreasing in the country: average emissions have gone down by two tonnes. This decrease took place in the poorest categories of population: while the bottom 50% and middle 40% decreased emissions by two and five tonnes, the top 10 % increased their emissions by 13 tonnes.

In Brazil, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP14,000 (BRL,43,680)*.4 While the bottom 50% earns €PPP2,800 (BRL8,800), the top 10% earns almost 30 times more (€PPP82,000 or BRL255,760). Brazil is one of the most unequal countries in the world: the top 10% captures 59% of total national income while the bottom half of the population takes only around 10%. Inequalities in Brazil are higher than in the US, where the top 10% captures 45% of total national income, and China, where it is 42%.

Canada is a wealthy country, with an average wealth of €PPP220,700 (CAD377,680). The bottom 50% holds on average €PPP25,700 (CAD43,950), and these figures rise to €PPP202,000 (CAD914,110) and €PPP1,273,000 (CAD5,602,434) for the middle 40% and top 10%, respectively. This is comparable with Western European countries such as France (respectively bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% average wealth of 22,300, 203,000 and 1,356,000 €PPP). Since the mid-1990s, wealth inequality levels have remained relatively stable in the country with the shares of the bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% equal to around 6%, 37% and 58% respectively.

In Chile, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP22,100 (or CLP14,083,780).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP4,500 (CLP2,866,570), the top 10% earns almost 30 times more (€PPP130,200 or CLP82,966,190). The bottom 50% in Chile earn only 10% of total income, while the top 10% share is equal to almost 60%. The country is one of the most unequal in Latin America. These levels are comparable with inequalities in Brazil, where the bottom 50% share is also close to 10%.

Available estimates suggest that inequality in Chile has been extreme over the past 120 years, with a top 10% income share constantly around 55%-60% and a bottom 50% income share around 9-10%. The persistence of extreme inequality in Chile, even after the end of the military dictatorship (1973-1990), has recently triggered a wave of social protests. In 2019-2020, Chileans went to the streets to protest against a dual economy system characterized by an economic elite living according to wealthy North American standards on the one hand, and a very poor working class and increasingly pauperized middle class on the other.

In Chile, the female labor income share is equal to 38%. This is very close to other Latin American countries, including Argentina (37%) and Brazil (38%). Similar to Brazil, the decrease in gender inequality in Chile has been significant in the last 30 years. Between 1991 and 2021, female labor income share has increased by 14 points.

Unsurprisingly, carbon inequalities in the country are also very high. The average carbon consumption is around 6 tCO2e/capita. While the top 10% emit on average 26 tonnes every year, the bottom 50% and middle 40% emit respectively three and six tonnes. Between 1990 and 2011, the average carbon footprint in Chile went from 3.7 tonnes to 6.3 tonnes. Since then, it has stabilized.

In China, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP17,600 (or CNY88,870).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP5,100 (CNY25,520), the top 10% earns on average 14 times more (€PPP73,400 or CNY370,210). This gap between incomes of the bottom 50% and the top 10% is higher than the inequalities observed in Europe, but below that of the US (17) and India (21).

Economic inequality in China followed a U-shape trajectory over the course of the 20th century. The establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 was associated with a fall in inequality levels in the context of a general decline in incomes. The post-1978 economic reforms led to fast-rising average incomes as well as growing inequality until the middle of the first decade of the 2000s. Post-2005, investments in health, education and infrastructure in rural areas, helped to keep inequality in check, but wealth inequality continued to increase at the very top of the social pyramid (see below).

The average wealth of the bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% is equal to €PPP11,000, €PPP56,000 and €PPP583,000 respectively (CNY55,270, CNY280,500 and CNY2,943,907). Overall, the top 10% in China own almost 70% of total national wealth. Wealth inequality in China is higher than the levels found in India (where the share of the top 10% is equal to 64%) and comparable with inequality levels in the US (71%). Since the 1990s, wealth inequality has been on the rise.

Here, China is an exception within Asia. The female labor income share is higher than the average in the region (33% vs. 21%) and in Japan (28%). Contrary to the general trend, however, female labor income share in the country is currently declining. Between 1991 and 2019, it decreased by six percentage points.

Although China is by far the world’s largest emitter in aggregate due to the size of its population, its per capita footprint consumption is lower than European levels and equal to 8 tCO2e/capita. This value is comparable with France’s carbon footprint (8.7 tCO2e/hab), but inequality levels are much higher. The bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% are on average responsible for respectively three, seven and 36 tonnes of CO2e/capita. Since 1990, average per capita emissions have notably increased, rising from 2.7 tCO2e/capita to 8 tCO2e/ capita. The emissions of the top 10% increased faster than the average, from around 7 tCO2e/ capita to over 30 tCO2e/capita. In comparison, the bottom 50% only increased their emissions from 1.5 to 3.0 tCO2e/capita over the period.

In Germany, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP39,900^* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP15,200, the top 10% earns on average 10 times more (€PPP148,000). This ratio is higher than in France (7), but smaller than in the US (17) and China (14).

Income inequality in Germany decreased substantially between 1917 and 1970. At the beginning of the 20th century, estimates suggest that more than half of national income accrued to the top 10% of the population, while around 15% went to the bottom 50%. Top incomes were barely affected by the hyperinflation that was followed by the 1929 crisis and the Second World War. Inequality was further reduced between the 1960 and the 1980s, thanks to a combination of progressive income and wealth taxes in a context of high growth rates for all, and in particular for low and middle income earners. The top 10% income share rose significantly after 1980, partly driven by liberalization policies.

In Germany, the female labor income share is equal to 36%. This is comparable with levels observed across Western Europe, although slightly lower than in France (41%) and the UK (38%). It is higher than the average in sub-Saharan Africa (28%), and Asia (21%, excluding China). The female labor income share has grown by about 6 p.p. since 1990.

Within the European Union, Germany is one of the highest CO2 emitters. While average footprint emissions in the EU are 9.5 tCO2e/capita, in Germany, they are above 11 tCO2e/capita. The top 10% emit on average 34 tons, i.e. six times more than the bottom 50%. Germany has pledged to cut its territorial emissions by 55% before 2030, compared with 1990 levels. This would mean reaching a per capita emissions average close to 6.5 tCO2e/capita – approximately the current level of the poorest half of the population.

The average national income of the Indian adult population is €PPP7,400 (or INR204,200).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP2 000 (INR53,610), the top 10% earns more than 20 times more (€PPP42 500 or INR1,166,520). While the top 10% and top 1% hold respectively 57% and 22% of total national income, the bottom 50% share has gone down to 13%. India stands out as a poor and very unequal country, with an affluent elite.

Indian income inequality was very high under British colonial rule (1858-1947), with a top 10% income share around 50%. After independence, socialist-inspired five-year plans contributed to reducing this share to 35-40%. Since the mid- 1980s, deregulation and liberalization policies have led to one of the most extreme increases in income and wealth inequality observed in the world. While the top 1% has largely benefited from economic reforms, growth among low and middle income groups has been relatively slow and poverty persists . Over the past three years, the quality of inequality data released by the government has seriously deteriorated, making it particularly difficult to assess recent inequality changes.

India is a low carbon emitter: the average per capita consumption of greenhouse gas is equal to just over 2 tCO2e. These levels are typically comparable with carbon footprints in sub-Saharan African countries. The bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% respectively consume 1, 2, and 9 tCO2e/capita. A person in the bottom 50% of the population in India is responsible for, on average, five times fewer emissions than the average person in the bottom 50% in the European Union and 10 times fewer than the average person in the bottom 50% in the US.

Indonesian gender inequalities are significant, the female labor income share in the country is equal to 25%. This level of inequality is slightly higher than the average in Asia (21%, excluding China). The female labor income share is lower than in Japan (28%) and Korea (32%) but significantly higher than in India (18%). As in many countries around the world, we observe a small upwards trend for female labor income share since 1991: it has gone up by four percentage points.

Carbon emissions in Indonesia are relatively low:

on average, an individual emits three tonnes of greenhouse gas per year. This is more than in India (2 tCO2e/capita) but less than in other Asian countries, including China (8 tCO2e/capita) and Japan (12 tCO2e/capita). The bottom 50% emits 1.4 tonnes in contrast to 11.8 tonnes for the top 10%.

In Italy, the average greenhouse gas production is around 9 tCO2e/capita. This is similar to European countries such as France (9 tonnes) and the UK (10 tonnes). The top 10% emit 24 tonnes in 2021 compared with five tonnes for the bottom 50%. Between 1990 and 2021, emissions in Italy decreased by around three tonnes of CO2e/ capita on average. While emissions among the top 10% have dropped by 8% since 1990, the bottom 50% recorded a 32% drop in its emissions. These dynamics are partly due to a stronger drop in incomes among the poor than among the rich after the lost decade of 2007-2017.

Average household wealth is equal to €PPP129,100 (ILS668,050), the average for the bottom 50% and top 10% are respectively equal to €PPP12,800 and €PPP804,700 (ILS 66,280 and 4,163,120). This means that the bottom 50% of the population holds only 5% of total national wealth, while the top 10% holds 62%.

Carbon consumption in Israel is significantly above world average. With 12.5 tonnes of CO2 equivalent per capita, yearly greenhouse gas emissions are higher than the average in the EU. They are, however, lower than in the US (21 tCO2e/capita) and Canada (20 tCO2e/capita). While the bottom 50% and middle 40% of the population respectively emit 6.7 and 13 tonnes of CO2 equivalent every year, the top 10% emits 40 tonnes.

In Morocco, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP7,800 (or MAD43,130).* Income inequality in Morocco is high and characterized by a relatively poor middle class: the bottom 50% earns €PPP2,100 (MAD11,700, close to 13.5% of the total), the middle earns on average €PPP7,200 (MAD39,910, 37% of the total) and the top 10% earns €PPP38,700 (MAD213,210, 49.5% of the total).

Inequality has remained high over the past 40 years in Morocco. Despite slight shifts, the top 10% share has never been under 48% and the bottom 50% never over 14%.

Wealth inequality in Morocco is extreme: the top 10% of the population own more than 63% of the total, whereas the bottom 50% own less than 5% of it. While the average household wealth in the country is equal to €PPP19,300 (MAD106,300), the bottom 50% possesses an average of €PPP1,700 (or MAD9,510). In comparison, the average for the top 10% and top 1% are equal to €PPP121,900 and €PPP585,500 (MAD671,870 and 3,227,020).

Women’s income share in Morocco is extremely low (14%), and below even the MENA region average of 15%. The female labor income share is slightly above that of Algeria (13%) but lower than in Tunisia (19%). Between 1990 and 2005, the female labor income share rose up by four points but since then, it has fallen by more than 1 p.p.

Carbon consumption in Morocco is also very low. Average emissions are just over 3 tCO2e/ capita. While the bottom 50% and middle 40% respectively emit 1.7 and 3.5, the top 10% emit 11tCO2e/capita.

In Nigeria, the average national income is equal to €PPP7,600 (or NGN1,895,630).* The top 10% earn on average €PPP32,700 or NGN8,098,350 (this group makes 43% of national income). In comparison, the bottom 50% earn a yearly average of €PPP2,400 (NGN587,583, or 16% of total national income). This level of inequality is similar to that in China, higher than in Europe and lower than in North America.

Available estimates are scarce for Nigeria but sources suggest that inequality has remained at relatively high levels since the 1990s. Still, after 2010, a decrease in inequality was observed. This decrease was first marked by relatively fast-rising bottom and middle incomes in 2010-2015, but following the 2016 growth slowdown, average incomes have been trending downwards.

Wealth inequalities in Nigeria are very high. While the average household wealth in the country is €PPP26,600 (NGN6,592,200), the bottom 50% wealth is just over €PPP3,000 (NGN754,770, less than 6% of the total). In contrast, top 10% wealth is equal to €PPP154,300 or NGN38,277,170 (58% of the total).

Carbon consumption in Nigeria is extremely low. Average emissions are equal to 1.6 tCO2e/capita. This is lower than North African countries, for example Morocco (3t). While the bottom 50% and middle 40% respectively emit one and two tonnes, the top 10% emits slightly over four tonnes. This means that a Nigerian from the richest 10% of the population emits over 2 times less carbon than a poor American from the bottom 50%.

In Poland, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP26,600 (or PLN68,950).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP10 400 (PLN26,850, 19.5% of the total), the top 10% earns on average 10 times more (€PPP100,400 or PLN260,260, almost 38% of the total). Income inequality in Poland is relatively high for a European country: the share earned by the top 10% is similar to that in Germany but significantly higher than other neighboring countries.

Since 1990 there has been a spectacular increase of inequality in Poland. In 1990, the bottom 50% captured 28% of national income whereas in 2021 they gain only 20%. The share of the top 10% increased from 20% to 38%. This increase is similar to that of other former Eastern Bloc countries, including Russia, which experienced an extreme rise of inequality in the context of a series of liberalization and privatizations policies which primarily favored wealthy groups.

Average household wealth in Poland is low compared with Western European countries and medium within Eastern Europe. It is equal to €PPP49,400 (PLN127,950), which is comparable with Russia (€PPP52,000) and slightly higher than Turkey (€PPP39,000). The average wealth of the top 10% is about €PPP305,000 or PLN791,130 (62% of the total), while the middle 40% owns about €PPP48,000 or PLN124,430 (39% of the total). In comparison, the bottom 50% average wealth is negative (-1% of the total): this group has more debts than assets.

In Poland, the female labor income share is equal to 40%. This value is significantly above the world average (35%). Poland was part of the ex-Soviet bloc, which encouraged women’s participation in the labor market. In general, women in Eastern European countries earn a larger share of total income than in the rest of the world (41% on average for countries in the former Eastern bloc). In Poland, women’s income share is equal to that in Spain (40%). In recent years, the share of total income earned by women in Poland has remained stable at around 40%.

Average carbon emissions in Poland are equal to 9.4 tCO2e/capita. While Poland is much poorer than Western European countries, its emissions levels are comparable because a large share of its electricity is generated from coal. Average emissions are similar to those in the UK (10) and France (9). The bottom 50% emit on average 5.3 tonnes of CO2 equivalent every year, the top 10% emit around five times more (27t).

In Russia, the average national income is equal to €PPP22,500 (or RUB896,150).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP7 700 or RUB304,350 (17% of total income), the top 10% earns on average 14 times more (€PPP104,600 or RUB4,160,690, 46% of the total).

In the early 20th century, income inequality in Russia was especially high (the top 10% income share was close to 50%), but it dropped significantly after the 1917 revolution. After the implosion of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the subsequent “shock therapy” (a mixture of abrupt privatizations and deregulation), incomes at the bottom and the middle of the distribution declined. Conversely, the very rich gained substantially from the new economic regime, large-scale privatizations and very little control over financial flows. Tax evasion among wealthy Russians is particularly high.

The transition to capitalism in Russia has also led to increased wealth accumulation in the country. Since the early 1990s, the share of the top 10% in net national wealth has risen to more than 70%, making the distribution of wealth in Russia one of the most polarized in the world.

In Russia, the female labor income share is equal to 40%. This value is significantly above the world average (35%). Historically, the USSR encouraged women’s participation in the labor market and so in general, women in Eastern European countries hold a larger share of total income than in the rest of the world (41% in average in countries of the Eastern bloc). In Russia, women’s income share is higher than Western European countries such as the UK (38%). The share of total income that women earn in Russia has gone up moderately in the last 30 years, gaining three percentage points.

The average carbon footprint in Russia is equal to 12.3 tCO2e/capita. This is higher than the average country in the European Union (9.5t), but smaller than high-emitting countries such as the United States (21t) and Canada (19t). Since the early 1990s and the fall of the Soviet Union, per capita emissions have dropped significantly (by around 30%). The emissions of the bottom 50% stand at seven tons in 2021 (five tons below their 1990 value), while emissions of the top 10% reach 42 tons in 2021, up by around five tons since 1990.

In Spain, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP30,600 (or €26,560).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP12,900 (€11,220), the top 10% earns on average eight times more (€PPP 105,500 or €91,560, 34.5% of the total). Spain is a relatively equal country compared with its European neighbors: the top 10% captures 34.5% of national income, while the bottom 50% has 21%. Inequality levels are similar to those in France and lower than in Germany.

Income inequality in Spain declined significantly over the course of 20th century, following the trend in other European countries (the top 10% share was above 50% in 1900 and dropped to 35% in the 1960s). Over the next 40 years, income inequality was maintained at relatively low levels, but then the country went through important economic turnarounds. After the fast growth of 1995-2005, the 2008-2014 financial crisis depressed average incomes, including those of the bottom 50%. It is only since 2015 that the poorest half of the population has recovered its pre-2007 average income level.

The richest 10% of the population in Spain owns 58% of total wealth, while the bottom 50% owns 7% of wealth. Over the past 30 years, despite financial booms and busts, the wealth share of the top 10% has remained largely stable. This relative stability can be explained by the fact that the richest Spaniards sold part of their housing assets during the bust of the real estate bubble in 2008.

Female labor income share in Spain in 2021 is equal to 40%. This is comparable with levels in France (41%), and higher than in the UK (38%). This level of inequality is close to the average in Western Europe (38%), but lower than in Eastern Europe (41%). Women’s share of total labor income in the country has increased significantly since the beginning of the century. Between 1990 and 2019, it grew by 15 percentage points, which is more than the general Western European trend (six percentage points during the period).

In Spain, average carbon emissions are equal to 8 tCO2e/capita. This is in between the rates of neighboring countries Portugal (6t) and France (9t). While the bottom 50% emits 4.6 tCO2e/ capita, the top 10% emits five times more (21t). Between 1990 and 2006, with a stable growth, benefiting also the poorest population groups, carbon emissions in Spain grew from 8.9 to 12.3 tCO2e/capita. Emissions for the bottom 50% increased by over two tonnes, up to 7.5. After the financial crisis, in a context of economic depression, carbon emissions decreased steadily.

In South Africa, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP12,400 (or ZAR117,260).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP1,300 (ZAR12,340), the top 10% earns more than 60 times more (€PPP82,500 or ZAR780,300). In 2021, the top 10% in South Africa earn more than 65% of total national income and the bottom 50% just 5.3% of the total.

Available estimates suggest that income inequality in South Africa has been extreme throughout the 20th and 21st centuries. The top 10% income share oscillated between 50 and 65% in this period, whereas the bottom 50% of the population has never captured more than 5-10% of national income. While democratic rights were extended to the totality of the population after the end of apartheid in 1991, extreme economic inequalities have persisted and been exacerbated. Post- apartheid governments have not implemented structural economic reforms (including land, tax and social security reforms) sufficient to challenge the dual economy system.

While the richest South Africans have wealth levels broadly comparable with those of affluent Western Europeans, the bottom 50% in South Africa own no wealth at all. The top 10% own close to 86% of total wealth and the share of the bottom 50% is negative, meaning that the group has more debts than assets. Since 1990, the average household wealth for the bottom 50% has remained under zero.

South Africa stands out as an exception in the sub- Saharan African region. The country’s female labor income share is equal to 36%, which is significantly higher than the regional average (28%). Gender inequalities in South Africa are comparable with levels observed in Western Europe (where the average earnings of women are equal to 38% of total national income on average).

In Korea, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP33,000 (or KRW38,426,130),* a level close to that of affluent Western European countries. Inequality is higher than in Western Europe and closer to that observed in the United States. The bottom 50% earns €PPP10,600 or KRW12,326,845 (16% of the total), the top 10% earns on average 14 times more (€PPP153,200 or KRW178,508,110), 46% of the total).

South Korea is one of the four “Asian Tigers” which underwent rapid industrialization and economic development between the 1960s and the 1990s. This development came with liberalization and deregulation economic policies in a context of weak social protection. As a result, inequality grew substantially over the period, the top 10% share rising from 35% to 45% since 1990, at the expense of the bottom 50% which dropped from 21% to below 16%.

South Korea is one of the wealthiest Asian countries. The average household wealth is equal to €PPP179,700 (KRW209,317,180). This is more than twice the average in China and eight times more than in India. Wealth inequality is very high, though. The share of total wealth held by the bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% is equal to 6%, 36% and 59% respectively. Inequality levels have increased in the last 30 years, with the middle class and working classes recording a slight decline in their share of total wealth, to the benefit of the top 10%.

The female labor income share in Korea is equal to 32%. This is higher than levels in Japan (28%) and India (18%). Overall, these shares are higher than in sub-Saharan Africa (28%) or MENA countries (15%) but remain lower than in Western and Eastern Europe (respectively 38% and 41%). Following the general world trend, we observe a small but continuous increase in women’s income share since 1990. During this period, it went up by five percentage points.

Korea is a high carbon emitter. Per capita greenhouse gas emissions are equal to 14.7 tCO2e on average. This is more than in China (8t) but less than in the US (21t) and Canada (19t). During the 1990s, carbon emissions in South Korea went up significantly. Average emissions increased by 66% over their 1990 level. While emissions in the bottom 50% increased by 43%, they increased by almost 200% for the top 10%.

In Sweden, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP45,200 (or SEK557,960).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP21,500 (SEK265,380), the top 10% earns on average 6 times more (€PPP139,000 or SEK1,717,450). Sweden is one of the least unequal countries in terms of income in Europe and the world, with the top 10% of the population earning just over 30% of total national income and the bottom 50% earning almost 24% of national income.

Sweden was one of the most unequal countries in Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and democratic rights were tied to wealth ownership. The expansion of democracy and growing support for the Swedish socialist party paved the way for the development of the Swedish welfare state, which led to a large-scale drop in inequalities, accompanied by fast-rising average incomes for the vast majority of the population. While inequalities have risen in Sweden since the 1980s (the top 10% share rose by about 5 p.p. since then), the country remains one of the most equal nations on earth in 2021.

While income inequalities are relatively low in Sweden, wealth inequality remains high, comparable with countries such as France and Germany. In 2021, the bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% respectively hold 6%, 36% and 58% of total national wealth.

The female income labor share in Sweden is equal to 42% of the total. This value is significantly above the Western Europe average of 38% and slightly higher than in the former Eastern bloc countries (41%). This share has increased from around 39% in 1991.

The average carbon footprint in Sweden is equal to 9.5 tCO2e/capita. This is similar to the European Union average. The top 10% emit on average 28 tonnes of CO2e every year. In comparison, the bottom 50% emit five times less (5.4 tonnes).

In Turkey, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP27,400 (or TRY85,010).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP6,500 (TRY20,260), the top 10% earns on average 23 times more (€PPP149,400 or TRY463,020). The top 10% captures 54.5% of total income while the bottom 50% takes 12%.

Estimates of inequalities in Turkey are very limited: the country’s transparency index is 3/20. Sources suggest that after a decline in inequality during the 1980-1990s, inequality has risen over the past 15 years. The recent economic slowdown (2018- 2021) has depressed the average incomes of all population groups.

In the last 25 years, average wealth in Turkey has more than doubled, to €PPP39,100 in 2021 (TRY121,160). In terms of wealth, Turkey appears to be more unequal than other countries with comparable wealth levels. In 2021, the bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% respectively hold 4%, 29% and 68% of total national wealth. This means that there is still a high number of very poor people, with the bottom 50% holding on average less than €PPP 2,900 (or TRY 8,910).

Average carbon emissions in Turkey are around 6 tCO2e/capita. While the bottom 50% of the population emit just under 3.1 tons, the top 10% emit seven times more (22.6 tCO2e/capita). With the general increase in living standards in the early 21st century, carbon emissions have slightly increased in Turkey (by around one tonne since 1990).

In 2021, average household wealth stands at €PPP214,000. The bottom 50% owns 5% of household wealth and the top 10% owns 57% of it. In the early 1900s, the top 10% UK wealth share was extreme, i.e. above 90% of the total. Wealth inequalities strongly declined over the 20th century (1910-1980) and mostly during the 1950s-1970s. Since the mid-1980s, the declining trend has been reversed but so far, the rise in wealth has been slower than for income.

In the US, the average national income of the adult population is €PPP54,300 (or USD77,090).* While the bottom 50% earns €PPP14,500 (USD20,520) per person, the top 10% earns on average 17 times more (€PPP246,800 or USD350,440). The ratio of 17 between incomes of the top 10% and the bottom 50% is significantly higher than in European countries (ranging from 6 to 10) and in China (14). The top 10% captures 45.5% of total income while just 13.3% goes to the bottom 50%.

The top 10% income share in the US dropped significantly after the Second World War (from slightly below 50% in the 1930s to 35-40% in the 1950-1960s), under the effect of strong capital control policies and a rise in federal spending, accompanied by strongly progressive taxation. The 1950-1980s were also marked by rapidly rising average incomes. From the early 1980s onward, deregulation, privatizations, decreases in tax progressivity and a decline in union coverage all contributed to a formidable rise in the top 10% income share (from around 34% in 1980 to 45% in 2021) and a drop in the bottom 50% (from 19% to 13%).

Wealth inequality levels in the contemporary US are close to those observed at the beginning of the 20th century, with a top 10% wealth share above 70%. Wealth inequality has followed similar dynamics as income over the past century. In 2021, average wealth for the top 10%, middle 40% and bottom 50% are respectively equal to €PPP2,004,400, €PPP197,300 and €PPP8,500 (USD2,846,360, USD280,150 and USD12,130). The share of total wealth owned by the poorest half of the US population is extremely small (1.5% of the total). While average household wealth in the US is 3.5 times higher than in China, the bottom 50% of the US population owns less wealth than the Chinese bottom 50%, in purchasing power parity terms.

In the US, the female labor income share is equal to 39%. This stands in between Canada (38%) and Russia (40%), and significantly above China (33%). While the share has risen in the US since 1990 (up from 34%), progress remains slow. Women’s representation among richest income groups is particularly low in 2021: among the top 1% of earners, women make up only 12% of earnings.

The US is one of the highest GHG emitters in the world. The average American is responsible for more than 21 tonnes of CO2e every year (twice as much as the average person in the EU). The bottom 50%, middle 40% and top 10% emit respectively 10, 22 and 75 tCO2e/capita. Since 1990, average per capita emissions have remained broadly stable among the top 10% and have decreased from 28 to 22 tCO2e/capita among the middle 40%. The US has pledged to cut, by 2030, half its emissions compared with 1990 levels, corresponding to emissions of around 10 tCO2e/capita.